Residual loneliness in the Netherlands after the COVID-19 pandemic: An application of the single interrupted time series design with pre-, peri- and post-pandemic observations

Objectives: During the COVID-19 pandemic, many countries implemented policies to physically separate citizens. As a consequence, an increased prevalence of loneliness was observed. This article examined whether the prevalence of loneliness in the Netherlands has returned to pre-pandemic levels after the restrictive policy was ended. We studied age differences in the course of loneliness. Study design: Single interrupted time series design. Methods: Data were from the Longitudinal Internet Studies for the Social Sciences (age range 16–102 years) and the Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam (age range 65–101 years). Both studies included respondents sampled from the Dutch population registers. Data collected relatively soon and later after the pandemic outbreak (nine and five observations in 2020–2023, respectively) were compared to extrapolated trend data based on a long period of time before the outbreak (since 2008 and 1992, respectively). Results: With two exceptions, the results of the two studies including five age categories and three types of loneliness measurement instruments showed that after an increased prevalence during the pandemic, prevalence at the last observation was at or below the level of the extrapolated trend. Conclusions: It is highly likely that the pandemic was indeed an interruption and not a fundamental trend change in loneliness. This shows individuals’ resilience and the ability to reactivate social ties after the interruptive pandemic.